The Correlation Between Music and Rhetoric in the Vocal Performance of Three Ghazals by Hafiz of Shirazi

In order to elucidate the importance of observing rhetorical principles in the effective and expressive vocal performance of Persian poetry, this study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach to examine how meanings are conveyed in the vocal renditions of three ghazals by Hafiz. The first ghazal, beginning with the verse “The recluse cleric last night went to the tavern…”, is analyzed in the performances of Shajarian, Alishapour, and Seraj. The second ghazal, starting with “May the day of lovers’ union be remembered…”, is studied through the performances of Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, Mohammad Motamedi, and Salar Aghili. The third ghazal, opening with “My heart slips away, O enlightened souls, for God’s sake…”, is examined across two renditions by Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, two by Shahram Nazeri, and one by Mohsen Keramati. The main analytical criteria include: The manner of vocal expression by the singer; The degree of emphasis on specific words; The extent to which the rhetorical techniques of the poet are observed; The quality and appropriateness of melodic ornaments and vocal tone in conveying the meanings of verses and words. Most vocal embellishments correspond well with the poet’s intended meanings; however, Shajarian’s renditions are found to be more successful compared to those of other singers. Some vocal ornaments used by other singers are unnecessary, while in certain cases, despite the rhetorical necessity of ornamentation, performers have neglected it. Motamedi’s repetitions, due to his attention to rhetorical precision, are more accurate than those of other vocalists. Shajarian, through precise emphasis, effectively conveys exclusivity and restriction in speech (qasr o hasr) and, with timely stress, communicates the meanings of the ghazal with greater depth. Aghili, by using accurate melodic ornaments, successfully conveys the meanings of expressions and words, making abstract concepts more tangible for the listener; however, he does not fully observe rhetorical necessities in his repetitions. His pronunciation of words and expressions also lacks precision, and he sometimes alters Hafiz’s text without rhetorical or musical justification. The use of textual variants in Shajarian’s performances aligns more closely with the overall context of the ghazal and demonstrates a better observance of rhetorical principles in vocal music compared to other renditions.
Introduction
Poetry and music have long maintained an inseparable bond. Iranian vocal music (āvāz), as the central component of Persian traditional music, is deeply intertwined with Iran’s millennia-old literary and cultural heritage, playing a vital role in conveying meaning and evoking human emotions. Literature—and more specifically, the art of rhetoric—has been fundamental in the creation of original and enduring works within the framework of Persian music and vocal performance. Iranian poets and men of letters, through their mastery of linguistic techniques, have composed verses that today inspire leading singers and composers to create refined musical works, bringing these poems to life through vocal interpretation.
Hafiz’s poetry is shaped by multiple stylistic frameworks, one of the most significant being the principles of classical rhetoric. However, the vocal performance of his poems is primarily governed by musical principles. Vocal renditions that disregard rhetorical rules fail to successfully convey the meanings, ideas, and emotions embedded in the poetry. Therefore, in this study, we evaluate the effectiveness, strengths, and potential weaknesses of vocal performances of Hafiz’s ghazals based on criteria that combine musical and rhetorical techniques.
 
Materials & Methods
Drawing on the theoretical foundations of Formalism, this research employs a descriptive-analytical approach to examine how meaning is conveyed through vocal performances of Hafiz’s poetry. The main analytical criteria include: the singer’s mode of expression, emphasis on specific words, observance of the poet’s rhetorical devices, the quality and appropriateness of vocal ornaments (tahrir) and tonal inflections in communicating the meanings of verses and words.
The corpus of this study includes ghazals that have been performed vocally by at least three well-known artists. Accordingly, three ghazals from Hafiz’s Divan were selected: The first ghazal, beginning with the verse “The recluse cleric last night went to the tavern…”, is analyzed in the performances of Shajarian, Alishapour, and Seraj. The second ghazal, starting with “May the day of lovers’ union be remembered…”, is studied through the performances of Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, Mohammad Motamedi, and Salar Aghili. The third ghazal, opening with “My heart slips away, O enlightened souls, for God’s sake…”, is examined across two renditions by Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, two by Shahram Nazeri, and one by Mohsen Keramati.
Research findings
The ghazal “The recluse cleric last night went to the tavern...”—with its subtle humor—depicts the transformation of a pious ascetic into a mad lover, requiring a nuanced performance to convey its depth. Seraj, with a calm tone and repetition of the phrase “āshiq o dīvāneh shod,” attempts to express this emotional transformation. His rapid articulation of “peymaan” suggests the fleeting nature of the ascetic’s vows, while the extended pronunciation of “gozasht” in the fourth verse evokes the graceful motion of the young cupbearer. However, the absence of tahrir (ornamental vocal runs) on key words like “dīn” (faith) and “del” (heart), and insufficient passion in “āshiq o dīvāneh shod,” reduce the expressive depth. Unnecessary repetition of “bāz be yek jor‘e mey” weakens the effect, and substituting “majnūn” for “majles” disrupts the humorous tone of the second couplet. Shajarian, through purposeful tahrir and precise emphasis—especially in conveying the ambiguity of “‘ahd” and the imagery of “halqeh” (ring) and “kharman” (harvest)—most successfully conveys the inner and romantic significances of the poem. He captures the ascetic’s transformation into a mad lover with remarkable emotional depth. Alishapour effectively evokes the fleetingness of “khāb” (sleep) and the longing in “pey-māneh” (cup), though neglect of key words like “narges” lessens the impact. Seraj, despite his success in depicting the passing of the cupbearer, falls short due to lack of excitement and insufficient tahrir on pivotal words.
The ghazal “May the day of lovers’ union be remembered...” carries a nostalgic and deeply wistful tone, lamenting lost joys and the disloyalty of friends—demanding an emotionally charged performance.
Shajarian, with precise rhetorical emphasis—especially on “az man” and “band”—and repetition of “yād bād,” intensifies the nostalgic and sorrowful atmosphere, vividly conveying the poet’s longing and faithfulness. Aghili, with expressive tahrir on “vasl” and “gham,” succeeds emotionally but loses impact due to pronunciation errors and unnecessary repetitions. Motamedi effectively conveys longing through the repeated “yād bād,” but his lack of attention to key words such as “vasl” and “hezārān” weakens the rhetorical delivery.
The ghazal “My heart slips away, O enlightened souls, for God’s sake...” embodies Hafiz’s signature blend of restlessness, hope, and subtle irony, demanding a performance that captures these multiple layers. Shajarian, through emphasis on “khodā-rā” in “sirr-e ‘eshq,” conveys the poet’s tone of oath and supplication; his articulation of “miravad” evokes movement and agitation. However, his tahrir on “penhān” (hidden) does not match its concealed meaning. In “karāmat,” his ornamentation underscores Hafiz’s satirical humor, while repetition of “khāhad shod” reinforces the poet’s sense of foresight. Nonetheless, mismatched tone in “do giti” and “do harf” diminishes the poet’s intended comparison. In “Dard-e ‘eshq,” Shajarian’s intentional tahrir and repetition effectively convey restlessness, irony, and moral counsel. Nazeri, in “Kish-e Mehr,” conveys doubt and yearning with tahrir on “tafaqqodi” and reinforces the rhetorical challenge of “taghyir kon qazā-rā,” yet weak emphasis on “yārā” lessens emotional power. His “sāz o āvāz-e now” emphasizes restlessness through repetition of “del miravad,” though a lowered tone on “khodā-rā” weakens the tone of supplication. Karamati, with tahrir on “do giti” and “morovat,” successfully evokes grandeur and virtue, yet his cheerful tone, misaligned with the poem’s melancholy, and lack of emphasis on “khodā-rā” weaken his rendition.
Discussion of Results & Conclusion
In the first ghazal, Seraj’s tone and repetition effectively convey emotional transformation, though occasional excessive repetition diverges from Hafiz’s intent. His articulation and tahrir generally align with meaning, yet the absence of ornamentation on certain words limits depth. Alishapour, through timely tahrir and modulation, communicates meaning effectively but sometimes employs unnecessary embellishments and lacks emphasis needed for vivid imagery. Shajarian, with precise tahrir and emphasis—especially in conveying ambiguity and imagery—communicates the poem’s meaning more successfully than the others, though some repetitions are less effective.
In the second ghazal, Aghili’s careful tahrir expresses meaning and emotional nuance, making abstract concepts tangible, but his repetitions disregard rhetorical necessity and contain pronunciation flaws that alter Hafiz’s diction. Shajarian’s timely emphasis captures exclusivity and intensity of emotion, deeply communicating the poem’s nostalgic sorrow. His repetitions are meaningful, enhancing tone and meaning, while his tahrir vividly embodies the poetry. Motamedi’s repetitions highlight longing and melancholy, though limited use of tahrir reduces the emotional depth and sense of connection in certain moments.
In the third ghazal, Shajarian’s “Sirr-e ‘eshq” effectively evokes meaning through emphasis and ornamentation, though some tahrir do not match semantic nuance. His “Dard-e ‘eshq” renditions succeed in conveying the poet’s thought and emotional layers—restlessness, irony, and counsel. Nazeri’s “Kish-e Mehr” skillfully conveys secondary meanings, but weak articulation of key words and mismatched tahrir reduce impact. His tahrir and repetitions in “tasnif” are expressive but lack of emphasis in key phrases undermines rhetorical strength. Karamati’s bright tone conflicts with the poem’s pain and longing, limiting rhetorical delivery, though his tahrir partially conveys meaning.