Allegory and Its Rhetorical Functions in Mowlana’s Maktubat

Allegory constitutes one of the most significant rhetorical strategies in Mowlana’s literary corpus, serving as a means to express mystical, ethical, and didactic ideas. His Maktubat (Letters), addressed to audiences from diverse social backgrounds, abound with both brief and extended allegories written for a variety of communicative purposes. Despite the prominence of this device, a systematic study of the allegories found in Mowlana’s Maktubat has so far received limited scholarly attention. Adopting a descriptive–analytical methodology supported by statistical analysis, the present study examines the types of allegories employed in Mowlana’s letters and their corresponding rhetorical functions. It seeks to answer the following questions: What kinds of allegories does Mowlana use in the Maktubat? Which types appear most frequently? And what rhetorical or communicative purposes do they serve? The findings indicate that Mowlana predominantly employs descriptive allegories, whereas narrative allegories occur less frequently. Among the various forms, proverbial allegories (ersal al-mathal)—short, proverbial expressions encapsulating popular wisdom—show the highest frequency. This pattern reflects Mowlana’s intent to emphasize, persuade, and legitimize his discourse through the use of collective wisdom and traditional linguistic forms. Conversely, extended allegories, such as fables and parables, appear only occasionally.   This scarcity may be attributed to the inherently practical and instructional nature of the Maktubat, which demands brevity and clarity rather than elaborate narrative form Furthermore, the functional analysis demonstrates that explanatory and motivational functions predominate in Mowlana’s letters, while argumentative and critical functions appear less frequently. This suggests that Mowlana’s primary purpose in his epistolary discourse was to offer moral guidance and inspire spiritual transformation, rather than to construct complex argumentative reasoning. By providing a detailed understanding of Mowlana’s use of allegory in his Maktubat, this study contributes to a deeper appreciation of his rhetorical artistry, communicative intent, and didactic method within the broader context of Persian mystical prose.
Introduction
Allegory is among the most effective rhetorical strategies in Persian literature, playing a pivotal role in conveying abstract concepts, intellectual persuasion, and emotional stimulation. Jalal al-Din Muhammad Balkhi Mowlana, one of the most distinguished poets and thinkers of Islamic mysticism, employed a wide range of allegorical devices throughout his works—including the Masnavi-ye Ma‘navi, Fihi ma Fih, and the Maktubat (Letters). Mowlana’s letters, addressed to audiences from diverse social strata, are replete with both brief and extended allegories crafted for different communicative purposes. Nevertheless, a systematic study of the allegories found in Mowlana’s Maktubat has not yet been undertaken with sufficient academic rigor.
This study, employing a descriptive–analytical approach supported by statistical analysis, examines the types of allegories used in eighty-six of Mowlana’s letters with identifiable addressees and explores their rhetorical functions. It aims to address the following questions: What types of allegories did Mowlana employ in the Maktubat? Which ones occur most frequently? And what rhetorical or communicative roles do they play in his letters?
 
Materials & Methods
Structurally, allegory can be divided into two categories: short or descriptive allegory, and extended or narrative allegory. The short allegory—typically consisting of one or several sentences—includes simile allegory, metaphorical allegory, proverbial allegory (ersal al-mathal), and parallel structure (uslub al-mu‘adala). The extended allegory, on the other hand, encompasses animal and human fables, symbolic allegories, fables (fabel), parables (parabel), and exempla (misalak).
Research findings
Overall, the results reveal that Mowlana predominantly employed short descriptive allegories, while extended narrative forms were used only sparingly. Among these, proverbial allegory exhibits the highest frequency, underscoring Mowlana’s effort to emphasize, persuade, and legitimize his discourse through appeals to folk wisdom and linguistic tradition. The infrequent use of extended allegories such as fables and exempla reflects the concise and didactic nature of his letters, which prioritize clarity and practicality. The functional analysis further demonstrates that explanatory and motivational functions dominate Mowlana’s allegorical discourse, whereas argumentative and critical functions appear less frequently. This finding suggests that Mowlana’s primary objective in his letters was practical moral guidance and emotional encouragement, rather than complex intellectual argumentation. By offering a systematic and detailed account of Mowlana’s allegorical strategies in the Maktubat, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of his rhetorical style, didactic aims, and epistolary communication techniques within the broader framework of Persian mystical literature.
Discussion of Results & Conclusion
The findings of this study demonstrate that Mowlana’s allegorical repertoire in the Maktubat includes simile allegory, metaphorical allegory, proverbial allegory, symbolic allegory, exemplum (misalak), parable, and fable. Considering that simile allegory, metaphorical allegory, and proverbial allegory fall under short or descriptive allegories, while parable, fable, exemplum, and symbolic allegory belong to the extended or narrative type, the overall pattern of usage in Mowlana’s letters reveals the following tendencies:

The Dominance of Short Allegories over Extended Ones

The data show that short allegories, particularly proverbial allegories and simile allegories, appear most frequently in Mowlana’s letters, whereas extended (narrative) allegories such as parables, fables, and symbolic allegories occur less often. Several factors contribute to this pattern:

The practical and functional nature of the letters, which requires brevity and clarity of expression.
The didactic and persuasive purpose of Mowlana’s correspondence, which leads him to employ familiar allegorical forms such as proverbs to enhance rhetorical impact.
The audience-oriented and situational nature of the letters: in formal letters addressed to rulers or statesmen, Mowlana preferred logical and persuasive allegories, whereas in personal or familial letters he used a more diverse and expressive allegorical style.


Proverbial Allegory: The Dominant Allegorical Mode in Mowlana’s Letters

Among the different allegorical forms, ersal al-mathal (proverbial allegory) stands out as one of Mowlana’s most fundamental rhetorical techniques for articulating his thoughts, emotions, and teachings. Its frequent use reflects Mowlana’s didactic and persuasive orientation, especially in formal letters to political figures, where he sought to legitimize his reasoning through folk wisdom and collective experience. Due to their cultural familiarity and universal acceptance, proverbs served as powerful tools for emotional resonance and persuasive communication.

Simile Allegory: A Tool for Explanation and Instruction

Following proverbial allegory, simile allegory represents the second most frequent device. Mowlana employed this form predominantly in letters addressed to rulers and officials, using it as a clarificatory and pedagogical method to illuminate abstract ideas and convey moral teachings.

The Limited Use of Metaphorical and Symbolic Allegories

Metaphorical allegory and symbolic allegory appear with the lowest frequency in the Maktubat. Their limited occurrence suggests that Mowlana generally favored clarity and directness over symbolic or figurative expression in his correspondence. When symbolic allegories do appear, they are mostly confined to personal or intimate letters, where Mowlana conveys deeper, private meanings that require interpretive understanding.

Selective Use of Extended Allegories (Parables, Fables, Exempla)

Extended or narrative allegories—such as parables, fables, and exempla (misalak)—are rarely found in Mowlana’s letters and occur mainly in correspondence with political figures. This selective use indicates several points:

Mowlana considered narrative allegories less suitable for official or practical correspondence, reserving them instead for moral reflection or spiritual instruction.
Parables and fables, with their story-like structures, were strategically used to convey complex moral or philosophical ideas in an indirect and thought-provoking manner.