Examining the Deficiencies of Eloquence and Rhetoric in the Divan of Abolqasem Lahouti

The popularization of literature, the expansion of its audience to the general public, and the focus on contemporary political and social events led poets of the Constitutional period to employ colloquial language with limited attention to poetic elements, resulting in the absence of substantial literary advancement. Critics have acknowledged that despite the introduction of new themes and poets’ efforts toward literary modernization, Constitutional poetry, owing to its colloquial nature, contains defects and inaccuracies. Poets of this era generally lacked mastery over linguistic precision and the natural structures of the Persian language. Abolqasem Lahouti, a pioneer of modern poetry, was not immune to such shortcomings; his works exhibit flaws that compromise their eloquence and rhetorical refinement. Through the present descriptive-analytical study, it becomes evident that Lahouti demonstrates weakness in both the lexical and syntactic domains. His reliance on obscure loanwords from Russian, Tajik, French, and other languages-often producing dissonance and auditory unpleasantness-together with his use of incomprehensible abbreviations and acronyms, as well as spelling inaccuracies, exemplify his lexical deficiencies. Although the defects in his syntactic constructions are less frequent, his poetry nevertheless reveals shortcomings such as lexical disharmony, weak composition, and both verbal and semantic complexity. Collectively, these flaws confirm the validity of critics’ views regarding the lack of eloquence and rhetorical sophistication in Constitutional poets, among whom Lahouti is included. 
Introduction
The Constitutional Revolution stands as one of the most pivotal junctures in Iran's socioـcultural history, leaving profound ramifications for Persian poetry and literature. Constitutionalـera poetry, while distancing itself from longstanding traditions, emerged in direct correlation with political and social events, transforming into an instrument for disseminating liberal, egalitarian, and critical thought. However, this literary evolution, being grounded more in social upheavals than in theoretical or aesthetic foundations, led many poets of this era to descend to a level of eloquence and rhetorical sophistication inferior to preceding traditions. Abolqasem Lahuti, one of the most prominent poets of this period and a pioneer of modernist poetry, endeavored in his Divan to amalgamate modern concepts with traditional forms and poetic experimentation. Nevertheless, his verses suffer from deficiencies in language and expression that challenge their eloquence and rhetorical power. This research aims to focus on Lahuti's Divan to examine the flaws in the eloquence and rhetoric of his poetry and to demonstrate how these flaws have impacted the aesthetic quality and expressive function of his work.
 
Materials and Methods
The present study employs a descriptiveـanalytical approach, structured around a direct examination of the Divan of Abolqasem Lahuti (edited by Ahmad Bashiri). The theoretical framework draws upon classical and contemporary rhetorical sources concerning eloquence and rhetoric, as well as the works of other contemporary scholars. Initially, criteria for flaws in eloquence were arranged at two levels: the "word" and the "discourse." Subsequently, the couplets in Lahuti's Divan were analyzed focusing on these criteria to identify and categorize prominent examples of errors and deficiencies. Following this, the findings were interpreted in light of rhetorical theories, and Lahuti's position among Constitutionalـera poets was reassessed from the perspective of eloquence and rhetoric.
 
Research Findings
The examination of Lahuti's Divan reveals that he grapples with numerous flaws, particularly at the "word" level. The most significant of these flaws are:
 

Unfamiliar Usage (Gharabatـe Estemal): The frequent use of foreign words borrowed from Russian, Tajik, French, Turkish, Arabic, and English, which not only hinders the audience's comprehension but also introduces cacophony and auditory dissonance.
Archaism (Arka'ism): The utilization of obscure and archaic vocabulary during an era characterized by the rise of simplicity and vernacular language, resulting in a poetic language distanced from natural eloquence.
Deviation from Morphological Norms (Mokhalefatـe Qiyasـe Sarfi): The use of abbreviations, unfamiliar acronyms, truncated words, and orthographical errors, which introduce grammatical and structural imperfections into the poetry.
Incorrect Verb Constructions: Such as the use of fabricated verbs and combinations that violate Persian morphological rules.

At the "discourse" level, the following deficiencies were identified:

Cacophony of Words (Tanaforـe Kalemat): The presence of hardـtoـpronounce compounds and foreign terminology that disrupt the poetic fluency.
Weak Composition and Verbal Complexity (Za'fـe Ta'lif va Ta'qidـe Lafzi): Syntactical disarray in some couplets and an inability to establish logical connections between sentence components.
Semantic Complexity (Ta'qidـe Ma'nawi): The use of farـfetched similes and imagery that complicate the understanding of the poetic meaning.

 
Discussion of Results and Conclusion
The findings indicate that Lahuti's linguistic weaknesses stem, more than anything, from the historical and social conditions of the Constitutional era and his ideological commitment. Lahuti sought to convey his political and social messages to a general audience, leading him to adopt a simple and direct language. While this choice transformed him into a popular poet, it simultaneously resulted in insufficient attention to the rules of eloquence and rhetoric. The recurrent use of foreign words and contemporary political terminology, although indicative of his engagement with diverse cultures, compromised the coherence and beauty of his poetic language. Furthermore, his propensity for simplicity, instead of enhancing the artistic richness of the poetry, occasionally led to weak composition and rhetorical shortcomings. However, it must be emphasized that Lahuti's poetry holds a unique position in the history of modern Iranian literature in terms of its content and social impact. He was among the first poets to introduce themes of freedom, social justice, and antiـcolonialism into Persian poetry, thereby paving the way for the emergence of modernist poetry. Consequently, although Lahuti's Divan exhibits serious deficiencies in eloquence and rhetoric, its historical and social value is undeniable. This research demonstrates that examining linguistic flaws in Constitutionalـera poetry not only aids in better understanding the standing of its poets but also reveals the relationship between social commitment and linguistic integrity. Lahuti serves as a prime example of poets who, on the path of literary modernism, sacrificed eloquence and rhetorical finesse for the sake of social mission.